An abdominoplasty, or tummy tuck, is a procedure used to alter the shape of the abdomen (tummy area) by removing fat and excess loose skin. There are two types of tummy tuck, called "partial" and "full". These operations are usually carried out under a general anaesthetic.
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a painless eye condition that generally leads to the gradual loss of central vision but can sometimes cause a rapid reduction in vision.
Central vision is used to see what is directly in front of you. In AMD, your central vision becomes increasingly blurred, leading to symptoms such as:
difficulty reading because the text appears blurry
colours appearing less vibrant
difficulty recognising people's faces
AMD usually affects both eyes, but the speed at which it progresses can vary from eye to eye.
AMD does not affect the peripheral vision (outer vision), which means it will not cause complete blindness.
Lumbar decompression surgery is a type of spinal surgery used to treat some conditions affecting the lower back (lumbar spine) that haven't responded to other treatments.
The main aim of this type of surgery is to improve problems affecting the legs, such as persistent pain and numbness, caused by pressure on the nerves in the spine.
Breast augmentation and augmentation mammoplasty are plastic surgery terms for the breast-implant and the fat-graftmammoplasty approaches used to increase the size, change the shape, and alter the texture of the breasts.
Female breast reduction, also known as reduction mammoplasty, is an operation to reduce the weight and volume of the breasts. During the procedure, fat, glandular tissue and skin are removed from the breasts, which are then reshaped and the nipples repositioned.
If you are concerned about the appearance of lines and wrinkles and feel that a permanent solution is needed then brow lift surgery may be right for you. Brow lift surgery smoothes out frown lines and wrinkles on your forehead and between your eyes to give you a more youthful, less serious appearance. Also known as a forehead lift, this cosmetic procedure raises the brows and lifts the eyelids to open up the area around the eyes.
Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is a relatively common condition that causes a tingling sensation, numbness and sometimes pain in the hand and fingers.
Usually, these sensations develop gradually and start off being worse during the night. They tend to affect the thumb, index finger and middle finger.
Other symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome include:
- pins and needles (paraesthesia)
- thumb weakness
- a dull ache in the hand or arm
Cataract surgery is a procedure used to treat cataracts that are affecting your daily activities.
It is the most common operation performed in the UK, with more than 300,000 procedures carried out each year.
Male circumcision is the surgical removal of the foreskin. The foreskin is the hood of skin covering the end of the penis, which can be gently pulled back.
Circumcision may be performed for:
religious reasons – circumcision is a common practice in the Jewish and Islamic faiths, and is also practised by many African communities as a tribal or ethnic tradition
medical reasons, although alternative treatments are usually preferred to circumcision
This article focuses on the medical aspects of circumcision.
Your doctor may recommend colonoscopy if you have developed changes to your bowel habits, if you are experiencing bleeding from your anus or if you have blood in your stool.
A colonoscopy may be carried out as a screening test for bowel cancer. It can also reveal the presence of polyps, which are non-cancerous growths on the lining of the bowel, and other problems in the bowel lining.
Colonoscopy involves inserting a colonoscope – a long fibreoptic tube with a lens or camera on the end – through the anus. Your doctor can then examine the lining of the rectum (the area of colon near your anus) and the entire colon on a screen.
Ear reshaping is a type of cosmetic surgery used to treat protruding ears. The operation is also known as otoplasty or pinnaplasty.
Protruding ears can be a characteristic that runs in families, but this is not always the case.
They can come about if there is too much cartilage, or if the ridge of cartilage at the top of the ear does not fold properly as it develops. They can also be the result of an injury to the ears.
If you have droopy eyelids or bags under your eyes, blepharoplasty can help smooth these out to give you a more alert and youthful appearance. This procedure, also known as eyelid reduction or eyebag removal, can be carried out on the upper eyelids, lower eyelids, or both.
There are many different types of cosmetic surgery procedure and it's important to find out as much as possible about any procedure you're considering.
Surgical removal of the gallbladder is one of the most common operations performed by the NHS. More than 60,000 gallbladder removals are performed each year.
The medical term for gallbladder removal is cholecystectomy.
Gastric banding, also known as lap banding, is a procedure which aims to make you feel full after eating a small portion of food. It works by restricting the capacity of your stomach, so that you eat less and, over time, lose weight. During the procedure, your surgeon will place an adjustable band around your stomach to create two compartments, keeping a narrow opening between the top and bottom so that food can pass through it slowly. There is a limited space left for food so it should quickly create the sensation of fullness.
An endoscopy is a procedure where the inside of your body is examined using an endoscope.
A hernia occurs when an internal part of the body pushes through a weakness in the muscle or surrounding tissue wall.
In many cases, hernias cause no or very few symptoms, although you may notice a swelling or lump in your tummy (abdomen) or groin.
The lump can often be pushed back in, or will disappear when you lie down. Coughing or straining may make the lump appear.
A hip replacement is a common type of surgery where a damaged hip joint is replaced with an artificial one (known as a prosthesis). It might be necessary for you to have a hip replacement if one (or both) of your hip joints becomes damaged and causes you persistent pain or problems with everyday activities such as walking, driving and getting dressed. A hip replacement can be carried out under a general anaesthetic (where you are asleep during the procedure) or an epidural (where the lower body is numbed).
The surgeon makes an incision into the hip, removes the damaged hip joint and then replaces it with an artificial joint that is a metal alloy or, in some cases, ceramic. The surgery usually takes around 60-90 minutes to complete.
A hysterectomy is a surgical procedure to remove the womb (uterus). There are various types of hysterectomy. The type you have depends on why you need the operation and how much of your womb and surrounding reproductive system can safely be left in place.
A hysteroscopy is a procedure to examine the inside of the uterus (womb).
It is performed using a small hysteroscope which sends images to a monitor. It can be performed as a diagnostic procedure or during treatment such as a polypectomy.
An arthroscopy is a type of keyhole surgery used both to diagnose and treat problems with joints.
The procedure is most commonly used on the knees, ankles, shoulders, elbows and wrist.
An arthroscopy might be recommended to look at the inside of the joints if imaging tests have been performed and you have problems such as swelling or stiffness.
As well as allowing a surgeon to look inside a joint, an arthroscopy can also be used to treat a range of problems and conditions. For example, it can be used to:
- repair damaged cartilage
- remove fragments of loose bone or cartilage
- treat frozen shoulder
If you tear the anterior cruciate ligament in your knee, you may need to have reconstructive surgery.
The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is a tough band of tissue joining the thigh bone to the shin bone at the knee joint.
It runs diagonally through the inside of the knee and gives the knee joint stability. It also helps control the back-and-forth movement of the lower leg.
Knee replacement surgery (arthroplasty) involves replacing a damaged, worn or diseased knee with an artificial joint.
It's a routine operation for knee pain most commonly caused by arthritis.
More than 70,000 knee replacements are carried out in England and Wales each year, and the number is rising. Most people who have a total knee replacement are over 65 years old.
For most people, a replacement knee will last for at least 15 to 20 years, especially if the new knee is cared for properly and not put under too much strain.
A labiaplasty is a surgical procedure to reduce the size of the labia minora – the flaps of skin either side of the vaginal opening.
Liposuction is a type of cosmetic surgery used to remove unwanted body fat. The operation is also known as liposculpture or suction-assisted lipectomy.
Liposuction is carried out on areas of the body where deposits of fat tend to collect, such as the buttocks, hips, thighs and tummy. The procedure is generally used to improve appearance rather than treat health conditions.
Liposuction permanently removes fat cells and can alter body shape, although the results may not last if you put on weight after the procedure.
Liposuction is not a treatment for obesity, and it will not remove cellulite or stretch marks.
Conditions that can be treated with liposuction include lymphoedema (where fluid accumulates in body tissue) and gynaecomastia (where fatty swellings develop under a man's nipples).
Moles are small coloured spots on the skin made up of cells called melanocytes, which produce the colour (pigment) in your skin.
Back pain is a common problem that affects most people at some point in their life.
It may be triggered by bad posture while sitting or standing, bending awkwardly, or lifting incorrectly. It’s not generally caused by a serious condition. In most cases, back pain will improve in a few weeks or months, although some people experience long-term pain or pain that keeps coming back.
A rhinoplasty, or 'nose job', is a procedure used to reshape the nose.
There are a number of different types of nose reshaping operation. The exact procedure will depend on the aim of the treatment. The operation may take place under a general or local anaesthetic.
The two main techniques used are called 'open' or 'closed'. Open means that some or all of the cuts are made outside the nose, whereas closed means all the cuts are made inside the nose.
A nose reshaping operation normally involves separating the soft tissue that lies on top of the nose from the bone and cartilage underneath. Depending on the operation, the surgeon might break the nose bone and reposition it, and/or reshape the cartilage.
Nose reshaping surgery generally takes around two hours.
After the operation, it's likely you will need to wear a protective splint over your nose for a few weeks. Stitches inside your nose will probably be dissolvable and will not need to be removed. Your surgeon will advise you about when any stitches outside your nose need to be removed.
There are several types of treatment for shoulder pain, depending on the cause of your shoulder pain and your symptoms.
Some treatment options, such as heat or ice packs and painkillers, may help to reduce pain and treat minor injuries at home.
You should see you GP if your pain is either the result of an injury, it's particularly bad, or there is no sign of improvement after a couple of weeks.
Your GP may refer you for specialist treatment with an orthopaedic surgeon (a specialist in conditions that affect the bones and muscles) or a rheumatologist (a specialist in conditions that affect the muscles and joints) if you have:
a frozen shoulder
a rotator cuff disorder
an acromioclavicular joint disorder
a rotator cuff tear
shoulder instability and you are under 30 years old
Vaginal repair surgery is an operation to strengthen the walls of your vagina.
Your vagina acts as a support structure that holds your pelvic organs, such as your womb, bowel and bladder in place. If this support system weakens or breaks, one or more of your pelvic organs can slip down or bulge into your vagina. This is called vaginal prolapse and can happen after pregnancy, for example, or if you have a weakness in your pelvic floor muscles. Vaginal repair surgery aims to restore your vagina's normal support.
Varicose veins don't always need treatment. If your varicose veins are not causing you discomfort, you may not need to have treatment.
Treatment of varicose veins is usually necessary:
to ease symptoms – if your varicose veins are causing you pain or discomfort
to treat complications – such as leg ulcers, swelling or skin discolouration
for cosmetic reasons – this kind of treatment is rarely available on the NHS
It is possible to have a vasectomy reversed. However, the procedure is not always successful. You have a better chance if it is done soon after the vasectomy.
If a reversal is carried out within 10 years of your vasectomy, the success rate is about 55%. This falls to 25% if your reversal is carried out more than 10 years after your vasectomy.
The removal of wisdom teeth, or third molars, is one of the most common procedures carried out in the UK.
A cystoscopy is a medical procedure used to examine the inside of the bladder using an instrument called a cystoscope.
A cystoscope is a thin, fibre-optic tube that has a light and a camera at one end. It is inserted into the urethra (the tube that carries urine out of the body) and moved up into the bladder.
The camera relays images to a screen where they can be seen by the urologist (specialist in treating bladder conditions).
There are two types of cystoscope:
flexible cystoscope – a thin, flexible tube used when the only purpose of a cystoscopy is to look inside your bladder
rigid cystoscope – a thin, straight metal tube used for passing small surgical instruments down through the cystoscope to remove a tissue sample or carry out treatment
Most cystoscopies are performed as outpatient procedures, so you'll be able to go home on the same day.
Your breasts may have lost their shape with age, or after pregnancy, breastfeeding or weight loss. Whatever the reason, a breast uplift could help to rejuvenate your figure and give you back younger, firmer and more shapely looking breasts. Often a breast uplift, also known as a mastopexy, is performed at the same time as a breast enlargement or reduction to help achieve the shape and size you would like your breasts to be.
Dilatation and curettage (D&C) is a minor surgical procedure to remove tissue from the endometrium (lining of the womb).
It is carried out by a gynaecologist (a specialist in the female reproductive system) and takes about 10-15 minutes.
If you have droopy eyelids or bags under your eyes, blepharoplasty can help smooth these out to give you a more alert and youthful appearance. This procedure, also known as eyelid reduction or eyebag removal, can be carried out on the upper eyelids, lower eyelids, or both.
A flexible sigmoidoscopy is a test that allows your doctor to look inside the rectum and lower part of your bowel using a narrow, flexible, tube-like telescope called a sigmoidoscope. This is carefully inserted into your back passage.
The test can help find out what is causing symptoms such as changes in bowel habit or rectal pain. It is also used to check for inflammation, early signs of cancer and polyps. During the procedure, your doctor may take one or more biopsies (samples of tissue) for examination in a laboratory.
If necessary, it’s possible to remove polyps and treat haemorrhoids during the procedure.
Gastric bypass uses special surgical staplers to create a small pouch at the top of your stomach. This pouch is then connected directly to a section of your small intestine, bypassing the rest of the stomach and bowel.
This means it takes less food to make you feel full and you'll also absorb fewer calories from the food you eat.
A grommet is a very small tube that is inserted into your child's ear through a small cut in their eardrum. Grommets can help drain away fluid in the middle ear and maintain air pressure.
Grommets are inserted during an operation called a grommet insertion. This procedure is carried out under general anaesthetic (where your child is asleep and doesn't feel any pain). It usually only takes about 15 minutes, so your child should be able to go home the same day.
No single fertility treatment is best for everyone. The right treatment for you will depend on your circumstances, including the cause of your fertility problems, the age of the female partner and your medical history. Broadly speaking, fertility treatments fall into three categories: 1) medicines to assist fertility, 2) surgical procedures, 3)
assisted conception.
Back pain is a common problem that affects most people at some point in their life.
It may be triggered by bad posture while sitting or standing, bending awkwardly, or lifting incorrectly. It’s not generally caused by a serious condition. In most cases, back pain will improve in a few weeks or months, although some people experience long-term pain or pain that keeps coming back.
Treatments for back pain vary depending on how long you have had the pain, how severe it is, and your individual needs and preferences.
An epidural injection is delivered into the epidural space of the spine to provide temporary or prolonged relief from pain or inflammation. The epidural space is located outside the dural membrane. Steroids, anesthetics and anti-inflammatory medications are typically delivered in an epidural injection. The injection may reduce pain and swelling in and around the spinal nerve roots, as well as around damaged nerves which in time may heal.
Imaging guidance, such as fluoroscopy or computed tomography (CT or "CAT" scan), may be used to help the doctor place the needle in exactly the right location so the patient can receive maximum benefit from the injection.
Bursitis is inflammation and swelling of a bursa. A bursa is a fluid-filled sac which forms under the skin, usually over the joints, and acts as a cushion between the tendons and bones.
There is no cure for osteoarthritis, but the condition doesn’t necessarily get any worse over time and a number of treatments are available to help relieve the symptoms.
The main treatments for osteoarthritis include lifestyle measures – such as maintaining a healthy weight and exercising regularly – medication to relieve your pain, and supportive therapies to help make everyday activities easier.
In a few cases, where other treatments have not been helpful, surgery to repair, strengthen or replace damaged joints may also be considered.
Prostate disease is a general term used to describe a number of medical conditions that can affect the prostate gland.
Tonsillitis is inflammation of the tonsils. It's usually caused by a viral infection or, less commonly, a bacterial infection.
It's a common type of infection in children, although it can sometimes affect adults.
In most cases, tonsillitis gets better within a week. However, a small number of children and adults have tonsillitis for longer or it keeps returning. This is known as chronic tonsillitis and surgical treatment may be needed.
Surgery to remove the tonsils (a tonsillectomy) is usually only recommended in cases where there have been several severe episodes of tonsillitis over a long period of time, or if repeated episodes disrupt normal activities.
A bunion is a bony deformity of the joint at the base of the big toe. The medical name is hallux valgus.
A ganglion cyst is a fluid-filled swelling that develops near a joint or a tendon. The cyst can range from the size of a pea to the size of a golf ball.
Ganglion cysts look and feel like a smooth, soft lump under the skin. They are made up of a thick, jelly-like fluid, called synovial fluid, which surrounds joints and tendons to lubricate and cushion them during movement.
Ganglions can occur alongside any joint in the body, but are most common on the wrist (particularly the back of the wrist), hand and fingers.
Ganglions are generally harmless, but they can sometimes be painful, especially if they are next to a nerve. If they do not cause any pain or discomfort, they can be left alone and may disappear without treatment, although this can take a number of years.
It is not clear why ganglions form, but they may be related to ageing or injury to the joint or tendon. They occur when the synovial fluid that surrounds a joint or tendon leaks out and collects beneath the skin.
During a sleeve gastrectomy, part of the stomach is removed. This restricts the amount of food that can be eaten and results in you feeling full sooner than normal when eating.
Men can also have breast reduction surgery if they have enlarged breasts, a condition known as gynaecomastia. Large breasts in men are often believed to be a result of obesity, but this is not the only cause. Men, like women, can have an abnormal growth of glandular breast tissue, usually because of a hormone imbalance.
Each shoulder is made up of three joints. These joints work together to help the shoulder move. The largest of these joints is a ball and socket joint. The “ball” is formed by the top of the upper arm bone, which glides around on a “socket”, which is part of the shoulder blade.
During shoulder surgery, a metal ball on a stem is inserted into the upper arm bone and a plastic surface is fitted onto the socket.
A woman can get pregnant if a man’s sperm reaches one of her eggs (ova). Contraception tries to stop this happening by keeping the egg and sperm apart or by stopping egg production. One method of contraception is vasectomy (male sterilisation). During a minor operation, the tubes that carry sperm from a man's testicles to the penis are cut, blocked or sealed.
This prevents sperm from reaching the seminal fluid (semen), which is ejaculated from the penis during sex. There will be no sperm in the semen, so a woman's egg can't be fertilised.
Coronary angiography can be used to help diagnose heart conditions, help plan future treatments and carry out certain procedures. For example, it may be used:
after a heart attack – where the heart's blood supply is blocked
to help diagnose angina – where pain in the chest is caused by a restricted blood supply to the heart
to plan interventional or surgical procedures – such as a coronary angioplasty, where narrowed or blocked blood vessels are widened
Coronary angiography is also considered to be the best method of diagnosing coronary heart disease (where a build-up of fatty substances in the coronary arteries affects the heart's blood supply).
Cardiac catheterisation is an invasive diagnostic procedure that provides important information about the structure and function of the heart.
It usually involves taking X-ray pictures of the heart's arteries (coronary arteries) using a technique called coronary angiography or arteriography. The resulting images are known as coronary angiograms or arteriograms.
Dupuytren’s contracture is a condition that affects the hands and fingers. It causes one or more fingers to bend into the palm of the hand. It can affect one or both hands and it can sometimes affect the thumb.
Dupuytren's contracture occurs when the connective tissue in the palm thickens. Often the tissue thickens in one small area first and a “nodule” forms (a small, hard lump about 0.5-1cm) under the skin of the palm. The nodule sometimes feels tender to begin with, but this usually passes.
The nodules are non-cancerous (benign) and the condition is not life-threatening for those who develop it, although it can be a nuisance to live with.
Over time, the nodules can extend and form cords of tissue. These cords can shorten (contract) and, if the cords run along a finger or thumb, they can pull it so it becomes bent towards the palm. These contractures are often mild and painless, but they can get steadily worse over time.
Sometimes, the term Dupuytren’s disease (palmar fibromatosis) is used instead of Dupuytren’s contracture, because not everyone with the condition will develop contractures.
A dental implant is used to support one or more false teeth. It is a titanium screw that can replace the root of a tooth when it fails. Just like a tooth root, it is placed into the jawbone.
A gynaecological laparoscopy is an examination of your reproductive organs (the fallopian tubes, the ovaries and the womb) using a narrow, tube-like telescope called a laparoscope. The instrument is inserted through small cuts on your abdomen.
Laparoscopes measure about 5 to 10mm in diameter and have a light and camera lens attached to the tip. The camera lens sends pictures of your internal organs to a video screen. Your surgeon will view these to find out what is causing your gynaecological symptoms (diagnostic laparoscopy).
An anal fistula is a small channel that develops between the end of the bowel, known as the anal canal, and the skin near the anus.
The end of the fistula can appear as a hole in the skin around the anus. The anus is the opening where waste leaves the body.
Anal fistulas are usually classed as either:
- simple or complex – depending on whether there is a single fistula tract or interlinking connections
- low or high – depending on its position and how close it is to the sphincter muscles (the rings of muscles that open and close the anus)
A woman can get pregnant if a man’s sperm reaches one of her eggs (ova). Contraception tries to stop this happening by keeping the egg and sperm apart or by stopping egg production. One method of contraception is female sterilisation.
Female sterilisation is usually carried out under general anaesthetic, but can be carried out under local anaesthetic, depending on the method used. The surgery involves blocking or sealing the fallopian tubes, which link the ovaries to the womb (uterus).
This prevents the woman’s eggs from reaching sperm and becoming fertilised. Eggs will still be released from the ovaries as normal, but they will be absorbed naturally into the woman's body.
A mastectomy is an operation to remove the breast.
It's used to treat breast cancer in women or breast cancer in men. It can also be used to reduce the risk of cancer developing in the breast.
If your GP refers you urgently because they think you have cancer, you have the right to be seen by a specialist within two weeks.
Your meniscus is a layer of cartilage in your knee joint that acts like a shock absorber between the bones in your upper and lower knee. It allows your knee joint to move smoothly and helps keep it stable.
A torn meniscus may not heal on its own as there is a limited blood supply to that area. Symptoms may include:
Pain
Swelling
Limited knee function
If conservative treatment for your meniscus tear is not successful, your consultant may recommend a meniscectomy.
Haemorrhoids, also known as piles, are swellings that contain enlarged blood vessels that are found inside or around the bottom (the rectum and anus).
Most haemorrhoids are mild and sometimes don't even cause symptoms. When there are symptoms, these usually include:
bleeding after passing a stool (the blood will be bright red)
itchy bottom
a lump hanging down outside of the anus, which may need to be pushed back in after passing a stool
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a type of scan that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the inside of the body.
An MRI scanner is a large tube that contains powerful magnets. You lie inside the tube during the scan.
An MRI scan can be used to examine almost any part of the body, including the:
brain and spinal cord
bones and joints
breasts
heart and blood vessels
internal organs, such as the liver, womb or prostate gland
The results of an MRI scan can be used to help diagnose conditions, plan treatments and assess how effective previous treatment has been.
A computerised tomography (CT) scan uses X-rays and a computer to create detailed images of the inside of the body.
CT scans are also sometimes known as CAT scans, or computed tomography scans.
During a CT scan, you'll usually lie on your back on a flat bed. The CT scanner consists of an X-ray tube that rotates around your body. You'll usually be moved continuously through this rotating beam.
The X-rays will be received by a detector on the opposite side of your body and an image of the scan will be produced by a computer.
Unlike an MRI scan, where you're placed inside a tunnel, you shouldn't feel claustrophobic.
The images produced by a CT scan are called tomograms and are more detailed than standard X-rays. A CT scan can produce images of structures inside the body, including the internal organs, blood vessels, bones and tumours.
The scan is painless and will usually take between five and 10 minutes depending on the part of your body being scanned.
An X-ray is a safe and painless procedure that's often used to produce images of the inside of the body.
It's a very effective way of looking at fractured bones, such as a broken arm or wrist.
X-rays can also be used to examine organs and identify problems. For example, an X-ray can highlight a lung infection, such as pneumonia.
They are also often used by surgeons during therapeutic procedures, such as a coronary angioplasty, to help guide equipment to the area being treated.
An ultrasound scan, sometimes called a sonogram, is a procedure that uses high frequency sound waves to create an image of part of the inside of the body, such as the heart.
As sound waves are used rather than radiation, the procedure is safe. Ultrasound scans are commonly used during pregnancy to produce images of the baby in the womb.
Ultrasound scans can also be used to:
detect heart problems
examine other parts of the body such as the liver, kidneys and abdomen
help guide a surgeon performing some types of biopsy
MRSA is a type of bacterial infection that is resistant to a number of widely used antibiotics. This means it can be more difficult to treat than other bacterial infections.
The full name of MRSA is meticillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus. You may have heard it called a superbug.
Staphylococcus aureus (also known as staph) is a common type of bacteria. It is often carried on the skin and inside the nostrils and throat, and can cause mild infections of the skin such as boils and impetigo.
If staph bacteria get into a break in the skin, they can cause life-threatening infections, such as blood poisoning or endocarditis (an infection of the inner lining of the heart).
An electrolyte test can help determine whether there's an electrolyte imbalance.
Electrolytes are salts and minerals found in the blood, such as sodium, potassium, chloride and bicarbonate, which can conduct electrical impulses in the body.
The test is sometimes carried out during a routine physical examination, or it may be used as part of a more comprehensive set of tests.
Blood tests can be used in a number of ways, such as helping to diagnose a condition, assessing the health of certain organs or screening for some genetic conditions.
When the liver is damaged, it releases enzymes into the blood and levels of proteins that the liver produces begin to drop.
By measuring the levels of these enzymes and proteins, it's possible to build up a picture of how well the liver is functioning.
This can help to diagnose certain liver conditions, including:
hepatitis
cirrhosis
alcohol-related liver disease
Histopathology is the study of tissues (histology) and cells (cytology) and usually includes morbid anatomy (autopsies).
Histopathologists do not work in a lab in isolation, but work closely with other doctors in the hospital. For cancers they are part of the team that meet and discuss every patient. Histopathologists examine biopsies and larger pieces of tissue to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of patients. Histopathology, or cellular pathology, is very important as the final diagnosis of a patient is often made by the histopathologist.
An electrocardiogram (ECG) records the electrical activity of the heart. The heart produces tiny electrical impulses which spread through the heart muscle to make the heart contract. These impulses can be detected by the ECG machine. You may have an ECG to help find the cause of symptoms such as palpitations or chest pain. Sometimes it is done as part of routine tests - for example, before you have an operation.
The ECG test is painless and harmless. (The ECG machine records electrical impulses coming from your body - it does not put any electricity into your body.)
A caesarean section is an operation to deliver a baby. It involves making a cut in the front wall of a woman’s tummy (abdomen) and womb.
The operation can be:
a planned (elective) procedure - when a medical need for the operation becomes apparent during pregnancy or if it's requested by the mother in advance
an emergency procedure, when circumstances before or during labour call for delivery of the baby by unplanned caesarean
A caesarean section is usually carried out under epidural or spinal anaesthetic, where the lower part of your body is numbed. It usually takes 40-50 minutes, but can be performed quicker in an emergency. Some caesarean sections are performed under general anaesthetic.
Breast reconstruction surgery is an option after a mastectomy to balance out the appearance of the breasts. Beyond external prosthetics, there are two options, artificial implants can be surgically inserted into the breast or tissue can be transplanted from one area of the patient to the breast. A surgeon's top priority is to ensure a good match and surgery can extend to cosmetic work on the affected breast.
Shoulder arthroscopic decompression is to take pressure off the inflamed shoulder tendons and to provide a pain free mobile and strong shoulder. The operation is suitable for people whose symptoms have not responded to non-operative methods such as injections or physiotherapy. They have usually undergone assessment of the tendons in the form of an ultrasound scan or MRI scan Overall, this sort of surgery should have a success rate of eight and a half to nine out of ten with substantial reduction in pain and a return to normal activity.
Vulval lesions are growths or abnormalities in your vulva (opening of your vagina). There are many causes of vulval lesions. If your lesions bother you, see your GP. After an initial examination you may be referred to a gynacologist.
To confirm what is causing your lesion your consultant may need to remove part or all of it for examination in a laboratory.
Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) can usually be diagnosed after you've been observed sleeping at a sleep clinic, or by using a testing device worn overnight at home.
If you think you have OSA, it's important to visit your GP in case you need to be referred to a sleep specialist for further tests and treatment.
Microdermabrasion is a treatment that involves the use of fine crystals and a vacuum to remove dead skin cells. It's used to improve the appearance of wrinkles and skin blemishes.
During the procedure, the practitioner will use a handheld device to direct a fine stream of tiny crystals across the skin to loosen any dead cells and vacuum them away.
Depending on the strength of the device used, microdermabrasion can be carried out by a doctor, nurse or beauty therapist.
Endoscopic Sinus Surgery is the name given to operations used for severe or difficult to treat sinus problems. In the past sinus operations were done through incision (cuts) in the face and mouth but endoscopic sinus surgery allows the operation to be performed without the need for these cuts.
A cyst (fluid-filled sac) can sometimes develop on the eyelid, or the eyelid can get inflamed or infected. Changes in the position of the eyelids, such as droopiness, often occur gradually with age.
During spinal fusion your consultant used surgical plates, rods or screws to weld your spine together eliminating motion that caused you back pain.
There are several reasons why your surgeon may recommend removal of your spinal hardware:
Failed fusion
Infection
Pain from misplaced or broken hardware
If you experience chronic (long term) laryngitis, difficulty swallowing or throat pain your GP may refer you to a specialist for further diagnosis and treatment. Your consultant may recommend a larynx diagnostic endoscopy.
Tonsillitis is inflammation of the tonsils. It's usually caused by a viral infection or, less commonly, a bacterial infection.
Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) is a common condition where acid from the stomach leaks out of the stomach and up into the oesophagus (gullet).
The oesophagus is a long tube of muscle that runs from the mouth to the stomach.
Common symptoms of GORD include:
heartburn – burning chest pain or discomfort that occurs after eating
acid reflux – you may havean unpleasant taste in the mouth, caused by stomach acid coming back up into your mouth
pain when swallowing (odynophagia)
difficulty swallowing (dysphagia)
GORD occurs only occasionally for some people, but if the symptoms persist it's usually regarded as a condition that needs treatment.
If you have loose or sagging skin on your upper arms, arm reduction surgery, also known as brachioplasty or arm lift surgery, could help to give you slimmer, more shapely and youthful looking arms. The procedure reduces the amount of loose skin that leads to 'bingo wings' or 'bat wings', and may give women back the confidence to wear short sleeved clothes again. It is often performed when substantial weight loss has resulted in loose, sagging skin that can't be improved through regular physical activity.
An arthroscopy is a type of keyhole surgery used both to diagnose and treat problems with joints.
The procedure is most commonly used on the knees, ankles, shoulders, elbows and wrist.
An arthroscopy might be recommended to look at the inside of the joints if imaging tests have been performed and you have problems such as swelling or stiffness.
As well as allowing a surgeon to look inside a joint, an arthroscopy can also be used to treat a range of problems and conditions. For example, it can be used to:
- repair damaged cartilage
- remove fragments of loose bone or cartilage
- treat frozen shoulder
There are a few different types of ear drainage, including blood, clear or milky white liquid, and most commonly ear wax. Drainage may also be a sort of combination of the three. Ear wax is yellow to orange-brown in color and is generally not a medical problem. Other types of drainage, however, can indicate conditions that may require medical attention.
You may need surgery if your perforated eardrum is severe or doesn't heal. The procedure used to repair a perforated eardrum is known as a myringoplasty.
This can help reduce your risk of getting ear infections and may help improve your hearing.
A labiaplasty is a surgical procedure to reduce the size of the labia minora – the flaps of skin either side of the vaginal opening. Most labiaplasty operations are done by private clinics as cosmetic surgery, to change the appearance of the female genitals.
Excision of excess labial tissue.
In most cases, floaters don't cause significant problems and don't require treatment.
Eye drops or similar types of medication aren't effective and won't make floaters disappear.
After a while, your brain may learn to ignore floaters and you may not notice them.
Treatment may not be necessary in cases where there are no symptoms of fibroids, or where symptoms are minor and your everyday activities are not significantly affected.
Fibroids often shrink after the menopause, and your symptoms will usually either ease slightly or disappear completely.
If you have fibroids that need treatment, your GP may recommend medication to help relieve your symptoms. However, you may need to see a gynaecologist (specialist in the female reproductive system) for further medication or surgery if these are ineffective.
The two most widely used types of weight loss surgery are gastric banding, based on restriction, and gastric bypass, which uses a combination of restriction and malabsorption.
A gastric balloon aims to reduce feelings of hunger and help you feel fuller for longer after eating only small meals. Also known as an intragastric balloon, this type of weight loss treatment can help you lose weight without invasive surgery. During the procedure a soft balloon is inserted into your stomach through your mouth, using an endoscope (a thin, flexible telescope). The balloon is then filled with saline solution to partially fill your stomach, leaving less room for large amounts of food or drink. A gastric balloon is designed to be a temporary weight loss solution, and will usually be removed after six months. It is sometimes used to help you lose enough weight to undergo gastric banding or gastric bypass surgery.
A hip replacement is a common type of surgery where a damaged hip joint is replaced with an artificial one (known as a prosthesis). It might be necessary for you to have a hip replacement if one (or both) of your hip joints becomes damaged and causes you persistent pain or problems with everyday activities such as walking, driving and getting dressed. A hip replacement can be carried out under a general anaesthetic (where you are asleep during the procedure) or an epidural (where the lower body is numbed).
The surgeon makes an incision into the hip, removes the damaged hip joint and then replaces it with an artificial joint that is a metal alloy or, in some cases, ceramic. The surgery usually takes around 60-90 minutes to complete.
Most women have naturally protruding nipples, but if either or both of your nipples are inverted, there is an operation that could help. Inverted nipples usually develop during puberty and are the result of short milk ducts. If you have had an inverted nipple since puberty, there is unlikely to be an underlying medical problem. But if it has happened more recently you should see your GP straight away. There may be an underlying condition that needs treatment.
If you tear the anterior cruciate ligament in your knee, you may need to have reconstructive surgery.
The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is a tough band of tissue joining the thigh bone to the shin bone at the knee joint.
It runs diagonally through the inside of the knee and gives the knee joint stability. It also helps control the back-and-forth movement of the lower leg.
Nasal polyps are swellings of the normal nasal lining that occur inside the nasal passages and sinuses (air-filled spaces behind the nose, eyes and cheeks).
They are typically pearly in colour and can vary in size. Each polyp is teardrop-shaped, and can look like a grape when fully grown.
You may not always know if you have nasal polyps because they can be difficult to see and don't always cause any symptoms.
Oesophageal atresia is a rare birth defect that affects the baby's oesophagus, the tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach.
In oesophageal atresia, the upper part of the oesophagus doesn't connect with the lower oesophagus and stomach. It ends in a pouch, which means food cannot reach the stomach.
It often happens together with another birth defect called a tracheoesophageal fistula, which is a connection between the upper part of the oesophagus and the windpipe (trachea). This causes air to pass from the windpipe to the oesophagus and stomach, and stomach acid to pass into the lungs.
Lumbar decompression surgery is a type of spinal surgery used to treat some conditions affecting the lower back (lumbar spine) that haven't responded to other treatments.
The main aim of this type of surgery is to improve problems affecting the legs, such as persistent pain and numbness, caused by pressure on the nerves in the spine. It is not a treatment specifically for back pain, although some people do have reduced pain in their lower back after surgery.
Surgery for back pain is usually only recommended when all other treatment options have failed or if your back pain is so severe you are unable to sleep or carry out your daily activities.
The type of surgery suitable for you will depend on the type of back pain you have and its cause.
Two procedures sometimes carried out include:
a discectomy – where part of one of the discs between the bones of the spine (the vertebrae) is removed to stop it pressing on nearby nerves (known as a slipped or prolapsed disc)
spinal fusion – where two or more vertebrae are joined together with a section of bone to stabilise the spine and reduce pain
Back pain is a common problem that affects most people at some point in their life.
It may be triggered by bad posture while sitting or standing, bending awkwardly, or lifting incorrectly. It’s not generally caused by a serious condition. Find out more about the causes of back pain.
In most cases, back pain will improve in a few weeks or months, although some people experience long-term pain or pain that keeps coming back.
If you have been left with loose or baggy skin around your bottom and thighs after losing a large amount of weight, a thigh and/or buttock lift could help to give you a smoother, more trim looking figure.
A thigh and buttock lift, sometimes known as a lower body lift when performed together, can deal with stubborn areas of sagging skin that you have been unable to shift through diet or exercise. It should not be considered as a way to lose weight however. It is better to have a buttock or thigh lift after you have achieved your target weight.
Physiotherapy helps restore movement and function when someone is affected by injury, illness or disability.
It takes a holistic approach that involves the patient directly in their own care.
An arthroscopy is a type of keyhole surgery used both to diagnose and treat problems with joints.
The procedure is most commonly used on the knees, ankles, shoulders, elbows and wrist.
An arthroscopy might be recommended to look at the inside of the joints if imaging tests have been performed and you have problems such as swelling or stiffness.
As well as allowing a surgeon to look inside a joint, an arthroscopy can also be used to treat a range of problems and conditions. For example, it can be used to:
repair damaged cartilage
remove fragments of loose bone or cartilage
treat frozen shoulder
An abortion is the medical process of ending a pregnancy so it does not result in the birth of a baby. It is also sometimes known as a 'termination' or a 'termination of pregnancy'. Depending on how many weeks you have been pregnant, the pregnancy is ended either by taking medication or by having a surgical procedure.
As we get older, our faces are likely to show the effects of time. Whether it is from simply laughing and frowning, or smoking and sun damage, our faces are prone to showing fine lines and wrinkles. Anti-wrinkle treatments aim to smooth out these facial wrinkles; helping to turn back the clock a few years.
How a breast lump is treated will largely depend on the underlying cause and any other symptoms you have. If a benign lump is particularly large or is getting bigger, surgery may be carried out to remove it. Types of benign breast lumps that may sometimes need to be removed with surgery include fibroadenomas, breast cysts, fat necrosis and intraductal papillomas.
Chemical skin peels help to create a younger, fresher look by improving the texture of your skin. They can help to reduce the signs of ageing, treat scars and blemishes and create healthier, firmer looking skin without the need for surgery.A facial peel could help if you have any of the following: fine lines or wrinkles, acne or acne scars, sunspots or freckles, uneven or greasy skin. The aim is to rejuvenate the face giving you smoother, softer, blemish free skin.
A DEXA scan is a special type of X-ray that measures bone mineral density (BMD).
DEXA stands for "dual energy X-ray absorptiometry". This type of scan is also often known as DXA, or "dual X-ray absorptiometry". It's also sometimes referred to as a bone density scan or a bone densitometry scan.
DEXA scans are often used to diagnose osteoporosis (when the bones become weak and fragile, and are more likely to break).
Endometrial ablation surgery is treatment to destroy (ablate) part of the womb lining (endometrium) for women who have heavy periods, known as menorrhagia.
Heavy blood loss each month can lead to a reduced number of red blood cells in the bloodstream (anaemia) making you feel tired and unwell. If medicines don’t reduce your menstrual bleeding, then your GP or consultant may suggest endometrial ablation as an alternative to major surgical options such as hysterectomy.
Fibroids are non-cancerous tumours that grow in or around the womb (uterus). The growths are made up of muscle and fibrous tissue and vary in size.
They are sometimes known as uterine myomas or leiomyomas.
Many women are unaware they have fibroids as they do not have any symptoms. Women who do have symptoms may experience:
- heavy periods or painful periods
- tummy (abdominal) or lower back pain
- a frequent need to urinate
- constipation
- pain or discomfort during sex
- In rare cases, fibroids can cause significant complications, such as infertility and problems during pregnancy.
Thread veins are very fine veins that are often visible on the cheeks, nose and legs. They are very common, and can be red, blue or purple in colour. If you have thread veins that you are very conscious of, and would like clearer skin, there are a number of options available to treat them.
In most cases, ovarian cysts disappear in a few months without the need for treatment.
Whether treatment is needed will depend on:
its size and appearance
whether you have any symptoms
whether you have had the menopause (post-menopausal women have a slightly higher risk of ovarian cancer)
About one in eight women in the UK are diagnosed with breast cancer during their lifetime. There's a good chance of recovery if it's detected in its early stages.
Breast screening aims to find breast cancers early. It uses an X-ray test called a mammogram that can spot cancers when they are too small to see or feel.
If a kidney stone is too big to be passed naturally (6-7mm in diameter or larger), you may need to have treatment to remove it another way.
This could include:
extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL)
ureteroscopy
percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL)
open surgery
The type of treatment you have will depend on the size and location of your stones.
